An Overview of Labour Laws in India

Labour laws refer to the set of laws that define and govern the relationships between employers, employees, organized unions, and the government. These laws deal with the responsibilities, terms of employment, working conditions, welfare benefits, and remuneration. The need for labour laws emerged due to demands for better working conditions for workers during the industrial revolution.

In India, the development of labour laws is closely tied with the country’s history of colonialism. The British colonial government enacted labour laws to comply with some of the norms established by the International Labour Organization (ILO), which the country had been an active part of since 1922. However, these laws were also largely tailored to protect British employees and the political economy of Britain. Labour laws enacted during this era include the Factories Act 1883 and the Trade Dispute Act 1929. The Trade Dispute Act became the first statute in India to govern employer-employee relations. The statute contained provisions to restrict the rights of employees and unions to strike or lockout.

After independence in 1947, the existing labour laws were modified with social justice. A partnership between labour and capital established certain worker conditions. Capitalists ensured fair wages and working conditions, while workers ensured cooperation and productivity. This led to the Industrial Dispute Act, which enforced these new developments and repealed the 1929 Trade Disputes Act. The Industrial Dispute Act regulates labour laws throughout India, providing laws to safeguard workers, promote peace and harmony, and solve disputes. Other enactments include the Minimum Wages Act 1948, Child Labor Prohibition Act, and the Factories Act 1948.

In the Constitution of India, labour laws are on the concurrent list, meaning that both the central and state governments can legislate upon labour matters. Due to this, several laws in the country govern various aspects of labour and employment, influenced by international conventions, committee recommendations, and judicial pronouncements.

These laws can be categorized on the following basis; those solely enacted and enforced by the central government, those enacted by the central government, which the state governments enforce; those enacted by the central government and enforced by both central and state; and those enacted and enforced by respective states.

In an attempt to simplify these numerous laws, the central government, in recent times, has made efforts to combine them into codes. Four codes have thus been created through a combination of 29 different labour acts. This is also to nationalize labour laws, create a comprehensive protection system for workers, and ensure an overall ease of doing business. The codes include the Code on Wages 2019, the code on Industrial Relations 2020, the code on occupational safety, health, and working conditions 2020, and the code of security 2020.

The Code on Wages combines four acts: the Equal Remuneration Act, the Minimum Wages Act, the Payment of Bonus Act, and the Payment of Wages Act. The code extends to all types of employees, establishing a universalized minimum wage and prohibiting worker discrimination, among other things. The code on industrial relations constitutes three acts – the 1947 Industrial Disputes Act, the Trade Unions Act, 1936, and the Industrial Employment Act. The code deals with relations between workers and employees and addresses issues relating to employment, collective bargaining, and strikes.

Under the Code of Social Security, unorganized workers and gig workers are now protected. The code combines nine acts and seeks to improve employee benefits in areas like insurance and provident fund. The Code on Occupational Safety, Health, and Working Conditions provides for safety conditions for workers, introduces gender parity, and promotes ease of doing business. 13 acts were combined to form this code.

India’s labour policy centres on promoting labour welfare and maintaining peace in the industrial sector with specific regard to certain issues like job creation, enforcing the child labour act, providing modern health facilities for workers, and attracting private and public investments. Although several changes have been made over the years, India’s labour laws are still open to reforms.

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An Introduction to Knitting

 Knitting produces a fabric by creating interlocking loops from one or more yarn sets using a pair of knitting needles. While there are knitting machines, most people identify knitting as an activity done by hand. Besides crocheting, knitting is the other popular method for creating yarn crafts.

There is no consensus as to the time knitting started. This is because knitting yarns decay, making it hard to trace some of the earliest knitted crafts. Still, some archaeologists say they found evidence of yarns and fabrics, some about 7,000 years old.

Nonetheless, some historians claim that knitting dates back to the third and fifth centuries, and the craft involved creating interlocking loops like today. Others state that knitting started in the Middle East and later went to the West via crusades.

Over the decades, different parts of the world adopted knitting and invented varying knitting techniques. The methods differed in how one holds the needles, colourwork, and stitch manipulation, resulting in different knitting patterns.

Despite the varying knitting techniques in different parts of the world, they are all based on two stitches: the knit stitch and the purl stitch. While the knit stitch creates a fabric by making loops at the back of a knitter’s work, the purl stitch does so at the front of the work.

Variations, such as the garter stitch, stockinette stitch, one-by-one (1x1) rib stitch, seed stitch, moss stitch, basketweave stitch, and purl ridge stitch, can be created from stitches. The garter stitch is the most popular and most beginner-friendly of them all. This stitch creates horizontal ridges formed by knitting loops on every row.

The stockinette stitch alternates rows of knit and purl stitches. For instance, the first row is a knit stitch, and the second is a purl stitch. The third row would be a knit stitch, and the pattern continues. This results in a fabric with v-like shapes. The one-by-one rib stitch makes a vertical rib-like fabric by alternating knit and purl stitches at even intervals.

A seed stitch is a complex style that creates different patterns by combining knit and purl stitches. It is most common in the United Kingdom. Similarly, the Moss stitch results in complex patterns and textures and is used in the United States.

With the basketweave stitch, a knitter uses the knit and purl stitches to create a design resembling the weaves on a basket. Last, the purl ridge stitch adds an extra row of knitted stitches to create purl bumps on the basic stockinette stitch.

Besides being an activity for creating crafts and a hobby for many, knitting has its benefits. One study reported a connection between knitting and feelings of calmness and relaxation. As a result, experts claim that it aids in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression.

Other research states that it helps to deal with chronic pain. Today, there are knitting groups on online platforms such as Facebook. According to scientists, when people with chronic pain reach out to such groups, the support they receive is numbing to their condition. In one study, knitting resulted in physical relief for those with chronic pain and was part of these forums.

Similarly, through such groups, knitting helps create social connections. This results in creating networks of like-minded people. Indeed, bonding with other people with similar interests boosts self-confidence and elevates one’s self-image.

Recent Indian Parliament’s Labour Codes

Because the Indian Constitution classifies labour concerns as part of its concurrent list, the central and regional governments can introduce encompassing and streamlined labour laws and have done so over the years.

Since 2019, the Indian Parliament has introduced four labour codes which have enhanced over forty extant labour laws. The Code on Wages, the first of the new codes, emerged in 2019. The Industrial Relations Code, the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code and the Code on Social Security followed in 2020.

The 2019 Code on Wages is centred on employee concerns about wage payment and related issues across all sectors. Featuring nine chapters and 69 sections, the Code on Wages substitutes the 1936 Payment of Wages Act, the 1948 Minimum Wages Act, the 1965 Payment of Bonus Act, and the 1976 Equal Remuneration Act. The minimum wages of Indian workers are a key concern of the Code on Wages. To this effect, the Code proposed the central government’s stipulation of a floor wage based on the living conditions of employees.

Furthermore, the 2019 Code of Wages empowers the central government to define the time bounds of a standard working day and to mandate employers’ payment of overtime wages to employees when applicable. The Code also bars employees from discriminating between employees based on gender with wage payments.

The Industrial Relations Code, 2020 is a modification of the 1926 Trade Unions Act, the 1946 Industrial Employment Act, and the 1947 Industrial Disputes Act. Primarily, the Industrial Relations Code is geared toward fostering improved relations between labour unions and employers, as well as the orderly resolution of industrial disputes. The Industrial Relations Code redefines the term ‘worker’ to include sales promotion employees, journalists, and employees in a supervisory role with a monthly wage of 18,000 rupees or lower.

Employers have an obligation under the Industrial Relations Code to contribute to a special government fund for redundant workers. The contribution for one redundant worker comprises half of the worker’s monthly wages, coupled with additional bonuses as are applicable. In addition, the Code enables employers and workers alike to seek redress for industrial disputes through arbitration.

Thirdly, the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code introduces cohesive safety standards across various industries and reduces impediments to seamless administration. The Code draws on 13 labour laws, notably the 1948 Factories Act, the 1952 Mines Act, and the 1970 Contract Labour Act. Establishments are the core focus of the Code, with the latter primarily defining an establishment as a place where a minimum of ten workers are in employment to carry on a business.

The Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code stipulates an eight-hour daily work limit and relieves employees of the obligation to pay for their safety and health at work. The Code equally guarantees the right of women to work in all establishments, including night shifts.

Further, the Code on Social Security harmonises nine labour laws, including the 1923 Employees’ Compensation Act and the 1972 Payment of Gratuity Act. Under the Code, the government has an obligation to establish a social welfare programme for platform workers, gig workers and unauthorised workers. The Code on Social Security also mandates employers to pay the average daily wage of women on maternity leave. Employers are obligated to pay maternity benefits for a maximum of 26 weeks.

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Government in India - Overview and Types

 India is an independent and democratic nation with its government consisting of a parliamentary system with federal and unitary components. India is also a socialist and secular nation according to the Forty Second Amendment of the Constitution of India.

The Indian Constitution demarcates its government as executive, legislative, and judicial authority. These governmental powers are held by the President, prime minister, parliament, and Supreme Court. For the executive body, the President has the role of the constitutional leader. The Prime minister serves as the nominal head of government affairs.

Per the constitution, India's President has the majority of the executive power. Though most of these powers are on untested waters and, if executed, can cause an array. Prime ministers in India head Councils of Ministers who advise the President on which he must act. The same goes in the states where a Chief Minister leads a Council of Ministers that advises the Governor. The appointment of these ministers, including their head, are from the parliament of India. In addition, the prime minister may be removed by a vote in the Lok Sabha.

The President, who has a five-year term, is also the chief commander of the armed forces and holds various clemency powers. He may confer some executive powers to his Vice President. Further, the President is in charge of choosing several necessary cabinets, including the governors of the 28 states.

The legislative body in India is under the parliament's control. It is bicameral and divided into Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha. Rajya Sabha is the upper House of Parliament, whose members are appointed according to constitutional provisions by the President. On the other hand, Lok Sabha, the lower house with 543 members, is elected by electorates for a five-year term. The upper house is often referred to as the Council of States, while the lower house is; the House of the People.

Each house holds unique powers, but Lok Sabha is the most potent house since its members were selected by the general population and are seen as the State's direct representatives. Its membership is notably temporary despite the fixed term. The President, on the advice of the Council of Ministers, can remove them. The members of the higher court, Rajya Sabha, enjoy more stability during their six-term reign.

Any laws made by this parliament are subject to judicial evaluation by the courts, with the signature of the President required for any bill to become a law.

Judicial bodies in India have the authority to render judgments, uphold the law, and resolve disputes. The courts in India include the Supreme, High, and District courts. The apex is the Supreme Court, headed by a Chief Justice, appointed by the President and other justices. The Supreme Court also holds the highest appellate powers.

Each of the 28 states in India is mandated to have a high court to handle economic and legal issues. The District courts are courts of the state high courts. There may be more than one district court in a district in India. It is dependent on the population or if the case occurrence is voluminous.